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$Title{Works of Voltaire
Character Analysis, Essay Questions and Bibliography}
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$Author{Voltaire}
$Affiliation{Assistant Professor Of History, Hofstra University}
$Subject{voltaire
candide
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Title:       Works of Voltaire
Book:        Study Guide
Author:      Voltaire
Critic:      Sobel, Robert
Affiliation: Assistant Professor Of History, Hofstra University

Character Analysis, Essay Questions and Bibliography

Character Analysis

     As has been mentioned, Candide is an allegory of the human condition as
seen by Voltaire. The novel was not written to amuse, and we are not supposed
to "identify" with the hero in the usual sense of the term. Today most novels
are viewed as allegories, and most of them attempt to be as subtle as
possible. The tradition of the eighteenth century was quite different.
Everyman and Pilgrim's Progress were part of the heritage of the people of
this century. These were broad, obvious allegories, in the style readers
were accustomed to in the period. It was natural, then, that Voltaire would
write in this tradition, making the characters in Candide easily identifiable
by observing this context. This method of presenting ideas is not unusual
today, nor was it unusual in the eighteenth century. Samuel Johnson's
Rasselas, which has been compared with Candide both in style, approach, and
story, was written at about the same time as Voltaire's work.

     The leading characters in Candide are analyzed in the following pages.
They are discussed in order of their relative importance to the story. Note
that Pangloss is discussed immediately after Candide. Although he is absent
for most of the book, his influence on the hero is visible throughout.

     Candide: The name Candide is derived from the Latin, candidus, which
means white, and usually symbolized innocence in ancient writings. It also
means candid, and our hero is nothing if not that. He looks at the world and
tells us exactly what he sees (as influenced by the teachings of Pangloss).

     Pangloss: The name of Candide's teacher is derived from the Greek pan
and glossa, which means all languages. In the vernacular of the time, this
meant "windbag." The philosopher was modeled after Liebnitz, Pope,
Shaftesbury, and other optimistic thinkers of the period. The reader must
remember that Candide is a purposeful satire; Voltaire realized that his
opponents did not hold the ridiculous ideas he ascribes to Pangloss. Rather,
the author attempts to show what these ideas could become if carried to their
logical conclusions.

     Martin: Candide's companion joins him at a time when he is ready to
denounce Pangloss' optimism. Just as the philosopher argued that all is for
the best, so Martin thought all was for the worst. In other words, he is the
other side of the coin, as gloomy as Pangloss is cheerful. Voltaire is more
sympathetic toward Martin than he is toward Pangloss, but the reader must
remember that Candide was written to attack the optimists, and not the
pessimists, this job is taken care of in other writings. In this respect, the
reader should recall that Candide rejects both men in the last chapter of the
book.

     Cacambo: Candide's guide in the New World was probably given his name by
Voltaire because it resembled cacao and other words which suggested America
to the European reader of the eighteenth century. There is also a
scatological connotation to the name which we need not go into here. It
implies, among other things, a half-breed origin. Cacambo then is a wily
American half-breed. He stands in perfect juxtaposition to the Baron, who has
a fine lineage, but whose character is as black as Cacambo's is pure. Some
have seen in Cacambo the prefiguration of roughish characters found in later
works. For example, he resembles Figaro, a major character in later Italian
tales and operas. Some have seen in Cacambo a copy of Sancho Panza, Don
Quixote's companion, but this seems rather overdrawn.

     Cunegonde: This is also a name which was chosen for sound as well as
meaning. The alliterative effect of Candide and Cunegonde is perfect (some
say Voltaire chose Cacambo for the same reason). Cunegonde is an old name,
and there were several queens by that name in medieval history. Like the name
Cacambo, there is a scatological connotation which may have pleased Voltaire
as well, since he was fond of such things. Cunegonde represents many things:
chivalric love at one point, hard-headed realism at another. Too, there are
really several Cunegondes: the one seen by Candide is pure and virtuous; the
version we receive is a beautiful, shrewd wench who knows her way around. She
is one of the few characters in the book who develops: in the beginning, she
is an innocent young girl; in the end, she is a wise woman of the world. At
first, she is coquettish with Candide; in the end, she demands he marry her.

     The Old Woman: Here is a classic type in French fiction, an old maid who
is full of sound advice. We meet her early in the book when she serves as
Cunegonde's maid. Later on, Cunegonde turns into a perfect double of the old
woman. Abigail also serves as a counterpart to Cacambo, and echoes many of his
ideas in a feminine voice. Voltaire uses her at times to voice his reflections
on the state of the world.

     Pacquette: The name of the serving-girl, turned prostitute, means daisy,
a sweet name for an innocent girl whose misfortunes parallel in many ways
those of her mistress, Cunegonde, and those of the old woman. One suspects
that Pacquette, like Cunegonde, will wind up being like the old woman.

     Pococurante: This name means caring little. He is the jaded man of the
world, who has seen all and enjoyed all. He has found that nothing is
satisfying, and is bored. Some of his comments on the thinkers of the past
reflect the judgements of Voltaire, but the reader must not think that
Voltaire has made Pococurante an admirable figure. He is what Candide would
have become had he no difficulties in life. Voltaire tells us, through the
words of Martin, that there is pleasure in not being pleased; Pococurante has
never known this pleasure. In some ways, the two men go together well. Martin
tells us that all is for the worst; Pococurante shows us that even the best
is for the worst.

     Brother Giroflee: The name means wallflower. Voltaire may have used it
because it goes well with his companion, Pacquette (daisy). One scholar has
noted that it may also be interpreted as a slap which leaves a mark on the
face, and certainly Giroflee's life was ample testimony for the choice of the
name if this  interpretation is accepted. He is introduced into the story to
help carry it along, and also as a symbol of the stupidity of such feudal
institutions as primogeniture and the nature of vocations in the Church.

     Baron Thunder-ten-tronckh: The name of the barony was chosen for sound
more than anything else. It is a perfect reflection of the pomposity and
pettiness of the small baronies of that part of Europe. As for the Baron, he
appears in many guises in the story. One may assume his father's character is
his as well: that of a vain, blustering tyrant. Then the son is a
warrior-saint of the Jesuits, killing with abandon, with no vocation,
enjoying his life in Paraguay. Finally, he appears as a down-at-the-heels
aristocrat, now a homosexual. At all times he is arrogant and narrow-sighted.
Even while a galley-slave he cannot forget his ancestors. When Candide offers
to marry his sister, he refuses to consent. As badly-wrecked as she might be,
she is still of noble birth, and cannot marry Candide. To Voltaire, the Baron
represents the nobility of Europe which, as another writer put it, "has
learned nothing and forgotten nothing." This characteristic will eventually
lead to the destruction of the class; in Candide, it leads to the Baron's
destruction.

Essay Questions

     1. Carl Becker discusses the role of "the Heavenly City" in his work on
the Enlightenment. What was Voltaire's thought on such places? How did the
vision of utopia manifest itself in Candide?

     Answer: The reader must remember that Voltaire lived in a sort of
heavenly city; his home in Switzerland, a garden similar in some respects to
the one Candide finally found outside of Constantinople. He was quite content
there, and yet he ventured from the place, and in the end died in Paris, and
not his beloved home.

     The utopian societies discussed in Candide are of a different order.
There are five in number. Three of them, all agrarian and patterned in part
after statements and ideas of Rousseau, are found ineAmerica. These are: the
land of the Oreillons, the Jesuit kingdom in Paraguay, and Eldorado. Two are
found in Europe: Thunder-ten-tronckh and Constantinople.

     The American utopias all have faults. The Oreillons, patterned after
Rousseau's Noble Savages, live in a state of nature. Voltaire does not
mention their government or laws, and we are led to assume they have nothing
but a primitive tribal arrangement. Rousseau intimated and at times said
outright that such societies, with all property in common possession, would
show none of the anti-social manifestations so common in Europe. Voltaire
disagrees: the Oreillons are cannibals, considering Jesuits a prime delicacy.
Cacambo explains that this is not really barbaric, and thinks the Europeans
would do the same had they not better food. Similarly, he defends the
cohabitation of Oreillon girls with monkeys on the grounds that Candide does
not understand that this is not a European society, and must be allowed its
own peculiarities. Still, these defenses are not convincing. Voltaire, in
using them, is probably ridiculing those who defend differences in cultures on
such grounds. And so, he dismisses the Oreillon utopia by having his hero
leave there as soon as he can, after being saved by telling the Indians that
he has killed Jesuits.

     The Jesuit Kingdom, a theocracy similar in some ways to the Geneva of
Calvin which Voltaire knew well, is also flawed . The Baron lives well; all
he wishes is at his disposal. But Voltaire makes us aware of the continual
presence of Jesuit-soldiers. Without them, the oppressed Indians would surely
rise and overthrow their rulers. Thus, this type of utopia is maintained by
fear of an upper class which enjoys life, but has no end other than continual
expansion. Candide flees this land as soon as he can.

     Then our hero goes to Eldorado. Here all seems well; people live long,
healthy lives, are free from want, and use reason in all things. This is
indeed the heavenly city described by many philosophes. But even here there
are problems. No one works; all is free and plentiful. Without work, can man
find meaning in life? Voltaire thinks not. In addition, the author asks if the
life of reason is what man wants and needs. Again, he answers in the negative.
After loading the sheep with gold and precious stones, Candide and Cacambo
flee this earthly paradise.

     What, then, of the European utopias? Thunder-ten-tronckh is an idyllic
place, in some ways resembling the Jesuit lands in Paraguay. It is no
accident that the Baron's father is comfortable and happy in Thunder-ten
tronckh, and his son finds joy in Paraguay. But like the American kingdom, the
European barony is fine for the upper classes, but misery for all others.

     Constantinople-or to be more precise, Candide's farm outside of
Constantinople-is about as perfect a place that man can hope to find. Candide
works in his garden, and seems to have found happiness. Note that such a farm
was within the grasp of many philosophes; Voltaire himself lived on one. And
yet, it is irrational, contains many of the flaws of Europe, and does not
correct the inconsistencies of human nature. What, then makes it a
near-perfect utopia? Voltaire indicates that work is the universal solvent of
human despair. When Pangloss attempts to justify the events of Candide's life,
our hero almost ignores him. The best of all possible worlds for him is a
place where each tends his own garden. There, one can mind his own business,
and most important, have business to mind. The active life, separated in part
from the maddening crowd and the stupidities of European society, are the
answers for Voltaire. Yet, he is not an anti-intellectual, as is Rousseau. His
garden is one of reason, and not of emotion and irrationalism.

     2. What is the "message" and "philosophy" of Candide?

     Answer: Allegories usually have messages-the hero of Pilgrims' Progress
finds his goal in God. What is the message and philosophy of Candide? Is it
merely "We must go and work in the garden?" This is part of the answer: man
finds contentment in meaningful occupations. But it is by no means all of the
answer, or even most of it. It leaves many questions unanswered. For example,
what is Voltaire's attitude toward optimism? Toward pessimism? Is the correct
stance that of the skeptics? The cynics? There are no satisfactory answers to
these questions, because Voltaire was unable to find them in his own life.

     The author spent his life attacking the shibboleths of eighteenth
century society. Wherever he looked he saw irrational, sometimes cruel, and
useless institutions. Among these he numbered the Church, the State, war,
unjust laws, and almost everything else that touched man, including philosophy
itself and love. Having "swept the philosophical stables clean" he was at a
loss as to what to replace these institutions with. In the end, Voltaire
became an epicurean, viewing life as an accident, which was to be enjoyed
while alive. But is this a satisfactory answer? Is there nothing better for
mankind than enjoyment and work? Although Voltaire never says so directly, he
seems to imply as much in his writings, including Candide.

     How did Voltaire arrive at this conclusion? One might note that there are
only three ways to meet an unsatisfactory situation. One may resign oneself to
it, the conditions may be fought, or the individual may leave his society.
Voltaire considered all of these possibilities. As for the last, leaving the
stupidities of Europe was no answer; there are stupidities everywhere,
although each society produces its own version. As we have seen, the utopias
of America are no more satisfactory to Candide than the problems of Europe.
Can one leave his milieu mentally through the transports of love? Such
departures do not last, as witnessed by Candides falling out of love with
Cunegonde, the object of his search for almost the entire book.

     What of resignation? This is not the answer either, for it leads to a
sterile, empty life, a devoid of meaning. In addition, is it possible to
resign oneself to conditions? One of the messages to be found in Candide is
that life consists of the continual facing up to challenges. Without these,
life is meaningless. It was the lack of abrasive conflict, and not so much the
lack of Cunegonde, that sent Candide from the state of Eldorado.

     The remaining alternative, that of struggle, is the one accepted by
Voltaire, and also by Candide. One must attempt to correct individual ills,
realizing all the time that a complete transformation of society and man is
not only impossible, but perhaps undesirable as well. In the end Candide comes
to terms with society; he does not attempt to make society over in his own
image.

     3. What were the immediate and long-range implications of Voltaire's
works and philosophy?

     Answer: Voltaire lived at the center of intellectual life during the
eighteenth century; it is impossible to think of the Enlightenment without
mentioning his name. But what of the implications of his ideas? Voltaire's
passion for reform and hatred of irrational forces in French life had many
political and social implications. The expulsion of the Jesuits from France
was an indirect result of his teachings. The attempts on the parts of Turgot
and Necker to reform France's finances were inspired (we have Turgot's word
for this) by Voltaire's writings. Indeed, the first stage of the French
Revolution was traced by many of the participants to Voltaire.

     The French Revolution may be considered the great endowment of Voltaire's
philosophy and life-and its failure as well. The France of 1789 was controlled
by the heirs of Baron Thunder-ten-tronckh. These men had political and social
powers, without a knowledge of society or politics, intelligence, or
compassion. France was not the most irrational nation in Europe in this
regard, but the accumulated institutions of a thousand years did not make
sense to the men of the French Enlightenment-the philosophes-and their
middle-class allies. At first they attempted to reform French life. They met
strong opposition from the nobles, the King, and the Church, but they pressed
on, and accomplished many of their goals. But it was here that their
mechanistic philosophy failed them. They had assumed that once shown reason,
man would create reasonable institutions. This was not to be in France, for
the revolution gathered steam and entered its irrational, bloody stage. Even
then, while under the control of men like Robespierre, attempts were made to
reconstruct life through the use of models created by the philosophes. Again,
these attempts met with failures, and finally ended in the despotism of
Napoleon, and a return to the old regime after the Emperor's defeat.

     The course of the French Revolution illustrates the successes-and
failures-of Voltaire and the philosophes. These men spent much time in
criticizing existing institutions, but not enough in formulating workable
alternatives. This failure is vividly seen in Candide. In it, Voltaire
attempts to pull down almost every institution in France-including the
philosophes themselves. But when it comes time for him to present his
alternative, he has no better solution than work and isolation. Voltaire's
works were calculated to lead to action, but the philosopher was not sure
himself what the results of the action should be. It was his misfortune to
speak radically, but think conservatively. He opposed the Church, but admitted
that man was immoral, and needed restraints. He lampooned the State, but did
not think that man in a state of nature could perform well. Voltaire decried
medicine, but maintained himself near the finest doctors in Europe. In other
words-to paraphrase Pangloss and Martin-this is the worst of worlds, but not
the worst possible. Voltaire called for reforms, but at times indicated that
reform might be worse than the evil it replaced.

Annotated Bibliography

     Cabeen, David C., ed. A Critical Bibliography of French Literature.
George Havens and Donald Bond have written an excellent summary of eighteenth
century French thought for this large collection. Included is a good short
study of Voltaire and his philosophy, a bibliography of works on Candide and
other selections by Voltaire, as well as an analysis of the book.

     Cobban, Alfred. In Search of Humanity. A good short discussion of the
Enlightenment, including deft analyses of the major thinkers of the period,
their successes and failures. Cobban has a chapter on "Voltaire and the War on
Religion" and another on "Idealism and Pessimism" that are well-worth reading
before going into Candide.

     Frame, Donald, ed. Voltaire's Candide, Zadig, and Selected Stories. A
handy, easily available collection of some of Voltaire's shorter works,
including Candide. Frame's sort introduction contains the highlights of
Voltaire's life.

     Brandes, Georg. Voltaire. A massive work, originally published in two
volumes, which is one of the most complete and best studies of the author.
Brandes tends to ramble at times, and go off into unproductive tangents. His
material on the relations between Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers
is quite good.

     Durant, Will and Ariel. The Age of Voltaire. This is another volume in
the huge, important, and influential history of civilization which has been in
the writing for more than forty years. The Durants write well, show many
insights, and are thoroughly enjoyable. Although this book, like others in the
series, contains little original material, it is perhaps the best single
source for the novice who wishes to study the Enlightenment.

     Wade, Ira. Voltaire and Candide. If you can "wade through Wade," you will
find this book illuminating and enjoyable. Unfortunately, the author has
written primarily for scholars who have a knowledged of French. This volume
contains a complete copy of the first edition of Candide as part of the
appendix.

     Bottiglia, William. Voltaire's Candide: Analysis of A Classic. This is
Volume VII in the series, "Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century."
It is dedicated to Wade, and smacks of his pedantry. In other words, it is a
fine study for the expert, but should be approached by the novice with some
care. Bottiglia has written what amounts to a compendium of the thoughts of
others as well as his own interesting insights. It is well worth reading,
and the student should not let the scholarly paraphernalia scare him unduly.

     Aldington, Richard. Voltaire. An old but still useful biography.
Aldington is preferable to Brandes in many respects. It is shorter, more
readable, and contains a good analysis of Voltaire's weaknesses as a writer
and thinker.

     Becker, Carl. The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth Century Philosophers.
This is a classic, and should not be missed. Becker stresses the continuity of
thought from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, and the role of faith,
rather than reason, during the eighteenth century. Voltaire emerges as a
high priest of reason, and not as the skeptic so many others think him to be.

     Barber, William. Leibnitz in France, from Arnauld to Voltaire. This is
an essential work for students who wish to better understand Voltaire's
opposition to the optimistic creeds of the period.

     Carr, Herbert. Leibnitz. A short work on the German philosopher and his
followers. Carr has written a section on the background to Candide from the
point of view of the Leibnitz group, which will give the reader a
better-balanced view of the period and the man.

     Gay, Peter. Voltaire's Politics. Gay is a leading scholar of the period.
In this work, he discusses the impact of Voltaire's ideas on the many reform
movements of the period, which were a backdrop to the French Revolution.

     Havens, George. Age of Ideas. This is an excellent analysis of the
Enlightenment by a man who has spent his life in the study. Havens has a
section on Candide which is essential for any student of the book. The reader
is further encouraged to read other works by Havens, who is probably the most
influential Voltaire scholar.

     Josephson, Matthew. Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Josephson is an American
writer of popular histories with a left-wing bias. He favors Rausseau, and
includes in his biography an interesting discussion of the conflicts and
friendships between his subject and other philosophers of the period,
including Voltaire.

     Lewis, Joseph. Voltaire, the Incomparable Infidel. Lewis is a leading
American atheist, whose praise for Voltaire knows no bounds. This book is
interesting from this viewpoint, but contains little which is not to be found
in other, better works.

     Maurois, Andre. Voltaire. A readable life of Voltaire which is
interesting, and at times exciting.

     Meyer, Adolph. Voltaire: Man of Justice. The author is unrestrained in
his praise of Voltaire. This book is valuable for Meyer's discussion of the
reactions to Candide by contemporaries.

     Shilling, Bernard. Conservative England and the Case Against Voltaire.
Voltaire admired English freedoms, but many of those who were responsible for
these freedoms (and those who opposed him) thought Voltaire to be a dangerous
radical, especially in regard to his writings on religion. This opposition
is fully discussed in Shilling's excellent book.

     Torrey, Norman. Voltaire and the English Deists. While accepting some
of Shilling's material and conclusions, Torrey believes that English writers
had a great impact on Voltaire, who understood that nation better than
Shilling believes he did.
